George Washington, John Adams, Jefferson's Administration and the War of 1812

Important Terms:

Judiciary Act of 1789-

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Funding at par-

Assumption-

Deficit Spending-

Tariff-

Excise Tax-

The Bank of the United States-

Strict Construction-

Loose Construction-

Federalists-

Democratic-Republicans-

2-Party System-

Whiskey Rebellion-

French Revolution-

Reign of Terror-

Neutrality-

Pinckney’s Treaty [1795]-

Edmond Genêt-

Little Turtle-

John Jay-

Jay’s Treaty-

Sectionalism-

XYZ Affair-

Alien and Sedition Acts-

Nullification-

Lewis & Clark-

Aaron Burr-

John Marshall-

Judiciary Act of 1801-

Midnight Judges-

Marbury v. Madison-

Judicial Review-

Louisiana Purchase-

Sacajawea-

Andrew Jackson-

War of 1812-

Treaty of Ghent-

Hartford Convention-

Notes:

Launching the New Ship of State

1789-1800

1.     Washington for President

·      George Washington was unanimously elected as President by the Electoral College in 1789. 

·      He took the oath of office on April 30, 1789. 

·      He established the cabinet.

·      At first, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, and Secretary of War Henry Knox served under Washington.

2.     Bill of Rights

·      James Madison wrote the Bill of Rights and got them passed by Congress in 1791.

·      The Judiciary Act of 1789 created the Supreme Court, with a chief justice and five associates, as well as federal district and circuit courts, and established the office of attorney general.

·      John Jay became the first Chief Justice.

3.     Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit

·      In order to create a thriving federal government, Alexander Hamilton set out to create a plan to shape the policies of the administration in such a way as to favor the wealthier groups.  These wealthier groups would then gratefully lend their money and political support to the government.  The wealth in the government would then trickle down through society.

·      In this plan, Hamilton persuaded Congress to fund the entire national debt at par, meaning that the federal government would pay off its debts at face value plus accumulated interest.  This would strengthen the national credit by creating public confidence in the small Treasury department. 

·      He then convinced Congress to take on the states' debts, which would create confidence in the government by the states.  States with large debts, like Massachusetts, were delighted with Hamilton's proposal, but states with small debts, like Virginia, did not want the government to assume state debts.  Virginia did, however, want the forthcoming federal district, the District of Columbia, which would bring commerce and prestige.  So Virginia made a deal with the government:  the government would assume state debts if the District of Columbia was placed on the Potomac River.  The deal was passed by Congress in 1790.

4.     Customs, Duties, and Excise Taxes

·      One of Hamilton's objectives was to keep a national debt, believing that the more creditors to whom the government owed money, the more people there would be with a personal stake in the success of the government.

·      In this objective, he expected tariff revenues to pay interest on the huge debt and run the government. 

v The first tariff law, which imposed a low tax of 8% on the value of imports, was passed by Congress in 1789.  Its purpose was to create revenue and to create a small protective wall around small industries.

v He passed additional internal revenue and, in 1791, convinced Congress to pass an excise tax on a few domestic items, notably whiskey.

5.     Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank

·      Alexander Hamilton proposed a Bank of the United States that could print paper money and thus provide a stable national currency.  The national bank would also be place where the Treasury could deposit monies.

·      Thomas Jefferson strongly opposed the Bank stating it was unconstitutional.  He felt that the states had the right to manage their own money.  Most of the opposition came from the south and most of the support came from the north.

·      Hamilton prevailed and the 1^st Bank of the United States was created in 1791.  Its charter lasted for 20 years and was located in Philadelphia.

6.     Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania

·      The Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania in 1794 was lead by distillers who strongly opposed the 1791 excise tax on whiskey. 

·      The rebellion was ended when President Washington sent in federal troops. 

·      Although the troops faced no opposition, a strong message was sent by the government stating that it would enforce the law.

7.     The Emergence of Political Parties

·      Political parties had not existed in America when George Washington took office. 

·      What was once a personal feud between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton had developed into a full-blown and bitter political rivalry.

·      In the 1790s, Jefferson and Madison organized their opposition to the Hamiltonian program but confined it to Congress.  In due time, this organized opposition grew and the two-party system emerged.

8.     The Impact of the French Rebellion

·      When Washington's first administration had ended in 1793, a formation of two political groups had ensued:  

o   Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans

o   Hamilton Federalists.

·      The French Revolution started in 1789. 

o   It began peacefully but entered a violent phase when France declared war on Austria in 1792. 

o   Things started to get worse when King Louis XVI was beheaded in 1793, the church was attacked, and the head-rolling Reign of Terror was begun. 

·      At first, the Federalists supported the revolution but that view suddenly changed when the attitude of the revolution changed.

9.     Washington's Neutrality Proclamation

·      Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans wanted to get into the French and British War to fight for France.  The Federalists were opposed.

·      Washington issued the Neutrality Proclamation of 1793 stating the country's neutrality from the Britain-France war. 

o   He was backed by Hamilton.

10.  Embroilments with Britain

·      For years, the British had retained the frontier posts on U.S. soil, all in defiance of the peace treaty of 1783.  The London government did not want to abandon the valuable fur trade in the Great Lakes region, and British agents openly sold firearms to the Miami Confederacy, an alliance of 8 Indian nations who terrorized Americans.

·      The Jeffersonians felt that American should again fight Britain in defense of America's liberties.  The Federalists opposed this action because Hamilton's hopes for economic development depended on trade with Britain.

11.  Jay's Treaty and Washington's Farewell

·      In a last attempt to avoid war, President Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to London in 1794 to negotiate. 

·      Opposed by Democratic-Republicans, Jay hammered out a treaty,

o   Jay's Treaty, in which the British promised to evacuate the chain of posts on U.S. soil and pay for damages for the seizures of American ships.  Britain stopped short of pledging anything about future maritime seizures or about supplying arms to Indians.  The treaty also called for the U.S. to continue to pay the debts owed to British merchants on pre-Revolutionary War accounts.

·      Jay's Treaty caused Spain, which feared an Anglo-American alliance, to strike a deal with the U.S. 

o   In Pinckney's Treaty of 1795 with Spain, Spain granted the Americans free navigation of the Mississippi River and the large disputed territory north of Florida.

·      In his Farewell Address to the nation, Washington urged against permanent alliances.  He left office in 1797.

12.  John Adams Becomes President

·      John Adams beat Thomas Jefferson to become to the 2^nd President in 1797.

·      Hamilton became the leader of the Federalist Party, known as the "High Federalists."

13.  Unofficial Fighting with France

·      France was upset with Jay's Treaty and it started capturing American merchant ships.  President John Adams sent John Marshall to France to negotiate in 1797. 

·      Hoping the meet Talleyrand, the French foreign minister, Adams's envoy was secretly approached by 3 go-betweens, later referred to as X, Y, and Z (Mme de Villette, Jean Conrad Hottinguer, and Lucien Hauteral). 

o   The French spokesmen demanded a bribe of $250,000 just to talk to Talleyrand.  Angered by the intolerable terms, Marshall and the envoy returned to the U.S.

·      Infuriated with the XYZ Affair, America began preparations for war:  the Navy Department was created; the three-ship navy was expanded; the United States Marine Corps was reestablished.

14.  Adams Puts Patriotism Above Party

·      Because France did not want another enemy, it said that if the Americans sent another negotiator minister, then he would be received with proper respect.

·      Napoleon Bonaparte was the dictator of France.

·      Eager to free his hands of a potential enemy, the dictator of France, Napoleon Bonaparte, signed the Convention of 1800 with American representative John Jay.  It annulled the alliance between France and America that had existed since the Revolutionary War. The convention also called for France to return captured American ships and for the U.S. to pay the damage claims of American shippers (damages were caused by France).

15.  The Federalist Witch Hunt

·      In order to decrease the number of pro-Jeffersonians, the Federalist Congress passed a series of oppressive laws aimed at "aliens", or foreigners who came to America and supported Jefferson. 

·      These Alien Laws raised the residence requirements for aliens who desired to become citizens from 5 years to 14 years.  They also stated that the President could deport or jail foreigners in times of peace or hostilities.

·      The Sedition Act stated that anyone who impeded the policies of the government or falsely defamed its officials would be liable to a heavy fine and imprisonment.

16.  The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions

·      Jefferson's Kentucky resolution and Madison's Virginia resolution concluded that the states had the right to refuse laws created by the government.  Virtually no other state followed the two states' resolutions.

17.  Federalists versus Democratic-Republicans

·      Hamilton Federalists supported a strong central government; they believed that the government should support private enterprise, not interfere with it; and they supported the British.

·      Jeffersonian anti-Federalists demanded a weak central government and supported states' rights.

 The Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic

1800-1812

18.  Federalist and Republican Mudslingers

·      Thomas Jefferson became the victim of one of America's first "whispering campaigns."  The Federalists accused him of having an affair with one of his slaves.

19.  The Jeffersonian "Revolution of 1800"

·      Thomas Jefferson beat John Adams to win the election of 1800 by a majority of 73 to 65 electoral votes.

20.  Jeffersonian Restraint

·      Jefferson quickly pardoned the prisoners of the Sedition Acts.  The Naturalization Law of 1802 reduced the requirement of 14 years of residence to the previous 5 years.

·      Jefferson also did away with the excise tax.                                                   

·      Albert Gallatin- Secretary of Treasury to Jefferson; believed that a national debt wasn't a blessing; he reduced the national debt with a strict economy.

21.  The "Dead Clutch" of the Judiciary

·      Judiciary Act of 1801- passed by the expiring Federalist Congress; created 16 new federal judgeships and other judicial offices. 

·      The new Republican-Democratic Congress quickly repealed the act and kicked out the 16 newly seated judges. 

·      One Federalist judge, Chief Justice John Marshall, was not removed.  He served under presidents including Jefferson and others for 34 years.  He shaped the American legal tradition more than any other person.

·      James Madison was the new Secretary of State.

·      Marbury vs. Madison (1803) - James Madison, the new secretary of state, had cut judge Marbury's salary; Marbury sued James Madison for his pay. The court ruled that Marbury had the right to his pay but, the court did not have the authority to force Madison to give Marbury his pay. Most importantly, this decision showed that the Supreme Court had the final authority in determining the meaning of the Constitution.

·      Samuel Chase- supreme court justice of whom the Democratic-Republican Congress tried to remove in retaliation of the John Marshall's decision regarding Marbury; was not removed due to a lack of votes in the Senate.

22.  Jefferson, a Reluctant Warrior

·      Jefferson preferred to make the military smaller.

·      Jefferson was forced to bend his thoughts of not using military force when the leader of Tripoli informally declared war on the United States.  Jefferson sent the new navy to Tripoli and after 4 years of fighting, a deal was reached.  The U.S. paid Tripoli $60,000 for the release of captured Americans.

23.  The Louisiana Godsend

·      Napoleon Bonaparte convinced the king of Spain to give Louisiana land area to France in 1800.

·      Not wanting to fight Napoleon and France in western America, Jefferson sent James Monroe to join Robert Livingston in Paris in 1803 to buy as much land as he could for $10 million. 

·      Napoleon decided to sell all of Louisiana and abandon his dream of a New World Empire for 2 reasons:         

v He failed in his efforts to re-conquer the island of Santo Domingo, for which Louisiana was to serve as a source of foodstuffs.

v Because Britain controlled the seas, Napoleon didn't want Britain to take over Louisiana.  So he wanted the money from the Americans.  He also hoped the new land for America would help to thwart the ambitions of the British king in the New World.

·      Robert Livingston- along with James Monroe, negotiated in Paris for the Louisiana land area; signed a treaty on April 30, 1803 ceding Louisiana to the United States for $15 million.  The Americans had signed 3 treaties and gotten much land to the west of the Mississippi.  820,000 square miles at 3 cents/acre.

·      Jefferson sent his personal secretary, Meriwether Lewis, and William Clark to explore the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase.                        

24.  The Aaron Burr Conspiracies

·      Aaron Burr- Jefferson's first-term vice president; after being dropped from Jefferson's cabinet, he joined a group of extremist Federalists who plotted the secession of New England and New York; Alexander Hamilton uncovered the plot.  Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel and Hamilton accepted.  Hamilton refused to shoot and he was shot and killed by Burr.

·      General James Wilkinson- the corrupt military governor of Louisiana Territory; made an allegiance with Burr to separate the western part of the United States from the East and expand their new confederacy with invasions of Spanish-controlled Mexico and Florida; betrayed Burr when he learned that Jefferson knew of the plot; Burr was acquitted of the charges of treason by Chief Justice John Marshall and he fled to Europe.                                

25.  America: A Nutcrackered Neutral

·      Jefferson was reelected in 1804, capturing 162 electoral votes, while his Federalist opponent (Charles Pinckney) only received 14 votes.

·      England was the power of the seas, and France had the power of land.

·      England issued a series of Orders in Council in 1806.  They closed the European ports under French control to foreign shipping.  The French ordered the seizure of all merchant ships that entered British ports.

26.  The Hated Embargo

·      In 1807, Jefferson passed the Embargo Act.  It banned the exportation of any goods to any countries.  With the act, Jefferson planned to force France and England, who both depended on American trade, to respect America and its citizens, who had been killed and captured by both countries.  The embargo significantly hurt the profits of U.S. merchants and was consequently hated by Americans.

·      The act was repealed in 1809 and a substitute act was enacted: The Non-Intercourse Act.  It opened up trade to every country except France and Britain.

·      The embargo failed because Jefferson overestimated the dependence of the 2 countries on America's trade.  Britain and France were not as reliant on America as Jefferson had hoped.  Britain was able to trade with the Latin American republics and France had enough land in Europe to support itself.

27.  Madison's Gamble

·      James Madison became president on March 4, 1809.

·      Congress issued Macon's Bill No. 2.  It reopened American trade with the entire world.  Napoleon convinced James Madison to give Britain 3 months to lift its Orders in Council.  Madison did, but Britain chose not to lift its Orders in Council, and Madison had to reenact the United States's trade embargo, but this time just against Britain. 

·      Macon's Bill No. 2 led to the War of 1812.

28.  Tecumseh and the Prophet

·      Twelfth Congress- met in 1811; the "war hawks" wanted to go to war with the British and wanted to eliminate the Indian threats to pioneers.

·      Tecumseh- Shawnee, along with his brother, unified many Indian tribes in a last ditch battle with the settlers; allied with the British.

·      Tenskwatawa- "the Prophet"; Shawnee, along with his brother, unified many Indian tribes in a last ditch battle with the settlers; allied with the British.

·      William Henry Harrison- governor of the Indiana territory; defeated the Shawnee at the Battle of Tippecanoe.

29.  Mr. Madison's War

·      On June 1, 1812, Madison asked Congress to declare war on the British and it agreed.

·      The Democratic-Republicans who supported the war ("war hawks") felt that the country had to assert American rights to the world.  They wanted to invade Canada, the Indians' stronghold, because the Indians were being armed by the British to attack the settlers.

·      The Federalists were opposed because they supported Britain.

The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

1812-1824

30.  On to Canada over Land and Lakes

·      The Americans tried to invade Canada from Detroit, Niagara, and Lake Champlain.  All were beaten back by the Canadians.

·      The Americans then attacked by sea and were more successful. 

·      Oliver Hazard Perry- captured a British fleet in Lake Erie. 

·      General Harrison's army overtook the British at Detroit and Fort Malden in the Battle of the Thames in October 1813.

·      Thomas Macdonough- naval officer who forced the invading British army near Plattsburgh to retreat on September 11, 1814; he saved the upper New York from conquest.

31.  Washington Burned and New Orleans Defended

·      Andrew Jackson defended New Orleans.

·      Francis Scott Key- American prisoner aboard a British ship who watched the British fleet bombard Fort McHenry; wrote the "Star Spangled Banner."

·      Washington burned in 1814.

32.  The Treaty of Ghent

·      Tsar Alexander I of Russia called the Americans and British to come to peace because he didn't want his British ally to lose strength in the Americas and let Napoleon take over Europe. 

·      The Treaty of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814 in Ghent, Belgium, was an armistice.  John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay went to Ghent for the signing.  Both sides stopped fighting and conquered territory was restored. 

33.  Federalist Grievances and the Hartford Convention

·      Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island met in 1814 in Hartford, Connecticut for a secret meeting to discuss their disgust of the war and to redress their grievances.  The Hartford Convention's final report demanded:

v Financial assistance from Washington to compensate for lost trade from embargos.

v Constitutional amendments requiring a 2/3 vote in Congress before an embargo could be imposed, new states admitted, or war declared.

v The abolition of slavery.

v That a President could only serve 1 term.

v The abolition of the 3/5 clause.

v The prohibition of the election of 2 successive Presidents from the same state.

·      The Hartford resolutions marked the death of the Federalist party.  The party nominated their last presidential candidate in 1816.

34.  The Second War for American Independence

·      The War of 1812 showed other nations around the world that America would defend its beliefs.  The most impressive by-product of the War of 1812 was heightened nationalism.

·      The army and navy were expanded and the Bank of the United States was revived by Congress in 1816.        

                                                

35.  "The American System"

·      Congress instituted the 1^st protective tariff, the Tariff of 1816, primarily for protection.  British companies were trying to make American factories die off by selling their British goods for much less than the American factories. 

·      The tariff placed a 20-25% tax on the value of dutiable imports.  Over time, the tax price continued to rise, creating problems of no competition between companies.

·      Due to nationalism, Henry Clay developed a plan for a profitable home market.  It was called the American System.  It had 3 main parts:

v A strong banking system, to provide easy and abundant credit.

v A protective tariff, behind which eastern manufacturing would flourish.

v A network of roads and canals.

·      President Madison vetoed the bill to give states aid for infrastructure, deeming it unconstitutional.  The Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans were strongly opposed to building federally-funded roads because they felt that such outlets would further drain away population and create competing states beyond the mountains.

36.  The So-Called Era of Good Feelings

·      The Federalists ran a candidate for the presidential for the last time in 1816.  James Monroe won the election.

·      The time during the administrations of President Monroe was known as the "Era of Good Feelings" because the 2 political parties were getting along.

37.  The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times

·      The Panic of 1819 was the first financial panic since President Washington took office.  The main cause was the over-speculation in frontier lands. 

·      The Bank of the United States became a financial devil to western farmers because it foreclosed many farms.

38.  Growing Pains of the West

·      Between 1791 and 1819, 9 states from the West had joined the United States.  People moved out west because of cheap land.

·      The Land Act of 1820 authorized a buyer to purchase 80 virgin acres at a minimum of $1.25 an acre.  The West also demanded cheap transportation and cheap money.

39.  Slavery and the Sectional Balance

·      The House of Representatives slowed the plans of the Missourians of becoming a state by passing the Tallmadge Amendment.  It called for no more slaves to be brought into Missouri and called for the gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already there.  The amendment was later defeated by the slave states in Congress.

40.  The Uneasy Missouri Compromise

·      Henry Clay introduced the compromise that decided whether or not Missouri would be admitted as a slave state.  Congress decided to admit Missouri as a slave state in 1820.  

·      But, Maine, which was apart of Massachusetts, was to be admitted as a separate, free state.  Therefore, there were 12 slave states and 12 free states.

·      The Missouri Compromise by Congress forbade slavery in the remaining territories in the Louisiana Territory north of the line of 36° 30', except for Missouri.

·      James Monroe was elected again as President in 1820.

41.  John Marshall and Judicial Nationalism

·      McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819) involved an attempt by the state of Maryland to destroy a branch of the Bank of the United States by imposing a tax on the Bank's notes. 

·      John Marshall declared the U.S. Bank constitutional by invoking the Hamiltonian doctrine of implied powers.  He strengthened federal authority and slapped at state infringements when he denied the right of Maryland to tax the Bank.

·      Cohens vs. Virginia (1821) involved the Cohens appealing to the Supreme Court for being found guilty of illegally selling lottery tickets by the state of Virginia.  Virginia won and the conviction was withheld.

·      Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824) grew out of an attempt by the state of New York to grant to a private concern a monopoly of waterborne commerce between New York and New Jersey.  (Meaning that no other company could use the waterway.)  New York lost.                      

                                                               

42.  Judicial Dikes Against Democratic Excesses

·      Fletcher vs. Peck (1810) Georgia legislature granted 35 million acres to private speculators; the next legislature cancelled the bribery-induced transaction.  John Marshall let the state give the acres to the private speculators calling it a contract and constitutional. The decision protected property rights against popular pressures. 

·      Dartmouth College vs. Woodward (1819) Dartmouth College was given a charter by King George III but New Hampshire wanted to take it away.  John Marshall ruled in favor of the college.

·      Daniel Webster- "Expounding Father"; served in both the House and Senate.

43.  Sharing Oregon and Acquiring Florida                                

·      John Quincy Adams- Secretary of State to James Monroe.

·      The Treaty of 1818 permitted the Americans to share the Newfoundland fisheries with the Canadians and provided for a 10-year joint occupation of the Oregon Country without a surrender of the rights or claims of either America or Britain.

·      With the many revolutions taking place in South America, Spain was forced to take many of its troops out of Florida. 

·      General Andrew Jackson went into Florida saying he would punish the Indians and recapture the runaways who were hiding away in Spanish Florida.  He did this, but captured St. Marks and Pensacola, the 2 most important Spanish posts in the area. 

·      The Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819, Spain ceded Florida, as well as Spanish claims to Oregon in exchange for America's abandonment of claims to Texas.

                               

44.  The Menace of Monarchy in America

·      After Napoleon's fall from power in 1815, the Europeans wanted to completely eliminate democracy.

·      George Canning- British foreign secretary; asked the American minister in London if the United States would band together with the British in a joint declaration renouncing any interest in acquiring Latin American territory, and specifically warning the European dictators to keep their harsh hands off the Latin American republics.

45.  Monroe and His Doctrine

·      Secretary Adams thought the British feared that the Americans would one day seize Spanish territory in the Americas; jeopardizing Britain's possessions in the Caribbean.

·      Monroe Doctrine (1823) - President Monroe, in his annual address to Congress, stated a stern warning to the European powers.  Its two basic features were non-colonization and nonintervention.

v Monroe stated that the era of colonization in the Americas was over.

v Monroe also warned against foreign intervention.  He warned Britain to stay out of the Western Hemisphere, and stated that the United States would not intervene in foreign wars.

46.  Monroe's Doctrine Appraised

·      The Europeans powers were offended by the Monroe Doctrine; in a big part because of America's soft military strength.

·      President Monroe was more concerned with the security of America when he issued the Monroe Doctrine.  He had basically warned the Old World power to stay away. 

·      The Doctrine thrived off nationalism.

TEST REVIEW:

Things to know:

• Hamilton's Economic policies
• the reason for state debts to be accumulated
• Why was the capital moved to the Potomac River?
• Loose construction vs strict construction
• Neutrality Proclamation of 1793
• Jeffersonians vs Federalists
• Jay's Treaty of 1794 and reactions to it
• XYZ Affair
• Napoleon's relationship with John Adams
• Alien and Sedition Acts
• The French Revolution, especially Bastille Day
• 1800 election as a "revolution"
• Marbury v Madison
• Louisiana Purchase
• Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton
• James Madison and the War of 1812
• Impressment
• War of 1812
• Election of 1800 candidates
• How did the presidential policies of Jefferson and Madison reflect the beliefs of Hamilton?

Free Response Questions [Choose 1]

1.     Write your definition of democracy. Use this definition to argue that Jefferson or Hamilton was the better spokesperson for democratic government in the 1790’s.

2.     Before 1790, American leaders denounced political parties. Explain why, nonetheless, political parties came into existence and what function they performed in the early Republic.